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English Language Sources for the Study of Cuban Indians and the
Effects of European Mentalities
An Annotated Bibliography compiled
by Rhianna Rogers
Rhianna Rogers holds an M.A. degree in history from Florida Atlantic
University where she is now pursuing doctoral studies. Her research
focuses on women and religion in pre-Hispanic cultures. Rogers
prepared this bibliography as part of Professor Graciella Cruz-Taura's
"Seminar in Cuban History" in the fall semester of 2003. |
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Primary
Sources |
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Acosta,
José de. Natural
and Moral History of the Indies. Edited by Jane
E. Mangan. Translated by Francis M. Lopes-Moralles. Durham: Duke
University Press, 2002.
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Original
publication: Historia natural y moral de las Indias,
1590.
One of the most influential works of the sixteenth-century, José
de Acosta’s Natural and Moral History of the Indies
typifies evangelistic Spanish mentalities towards indigenous cultures
of America. Utilizing several decades of observations collected by
chroniclers and missionaries and fifteen years of personal experiences
in Mexico, Peru, and the Indies, Acosta wrote his text as a tool to
help Europeans understand the customs of the Indians and provide tools
to Christianize the native population. With his subjective views of
the religious, social, and political endeavors of the Indians, Acosta
illustrates the ideologies encompassing Spanish thought, and the intellectual
tactics used to justify the destruction of indigenous cultures. Although
Acosta touches on the subject of Cuban Indians peripherally, the impact
of his work on the overall treatment of indigenous societies is crucial
in tracing cultural shifts back to sixteenth-century Spanish ideological
movements. |
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Anghiera,
Pietro Martire d’. The
Decades of the Newe Worlde or West India. Facsimile
reprint of the 1555 ed. published by Guilhelmi Powell, London and
translated by Richard Eden. March of America Facsimile Series, no.
4. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms, Inc., 1966.
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Original
publication: De orbe novo, 1533.
Pietro Martire d’ Anghiera’s The Decades of the Newe
Worlde is a compilation of reports and documents written to describe
the initial voyages to the New World. This collection, written primarily
from his perspective, was the first comprehensive collection of English
language translations regarding New World missions in the 1500s. Containing
works of Columbus, Magellan, Amerigo Vespucci, and various excerpts
by Oviedo, this collection enables English language reader to acquaint
oneself with the New World experiences. Although he has edited many
of these works in order to validate his ideologies, the essence of
the materials is apparent. It serves as an important source in understanding
the various perspectives of early European explorers and the impact
their personal observations had on the newly-discovered American continents.
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Anghiera,
Pietro Martire d’. The
Historie of the West Indies: Containing the Actes and Aduventures
of the Spaniards which have conquered and peopled those Countries,
inriched with varietie of pleasant relation of the Manners, Ceremonies,
Laws, Governments, and Warres of the Indians.
Translation into English by M. Lok from Richard Hakluyt's 1577 edition
of De orbe novo. London: Printed for A. Hebb, 1625. |
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Original
publication: De orbe novo, 1533.
Anghiera, also known as Peter Martyr, provides a detailed account
of significant contacts between the Spanish and various indigenous
groups in his History of the West Indies. Providing detailed
summaries of several indigenous cultures in Spanish America and the
Antilles, Martyr’s book helps to explain the complex social
systems existing in native societies. Following the common European
sentiment of evangelizing the New World, Martyr’s text expresses
the necessity for Christianizing the inhabitants of the region in
order to decrease Spanish-Indian conflicts. In his position as a New
World religious figure, Martyr was required to understand the customs
of the indigenous peoples in order to effectively Christianize them.
As a result, Martyr’s text is full of intricate details of Indian
life and society. Also, his text helps illustrate the strong connection
between religiosity and colonization in the sixteenth century, with
the utilization of Christianity as a justifying agent of the conquests.
In spite of the ethnocentrism of his writings, Martyr’s text
is helpful in understanding the Spanish perceptions of indigenous
cultures and their concerns with the evangelization of Native American
peoples. |
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Casas, Bartolomé de las. In
defense of the Indians: The Defense of the Most Reverend Lord, Don
Fray Bartolome de Las Casas, of the Order of Preachers, Late Bishop
of Chiapa, Against the Persecutors and Slanderers of the Peoples of
the New World Discovered Across the Seas. Translated
and Edited by Stafford Poole. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University
Press, 1974. |
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Original
publication: Brevíssima relación de la
destruyción de las Indias, 1552.
Considered to be the leading proponent of early Indian rights, Bartolomé
de las Casas’s In defense of the Indians is an intellectual
plea to the Crown of Spain to improve the treatment of the native
peoples in America. Based on numerous observations of malicious actions
conducted by Spanish officials, las Casas wrote his text in order
to explain the necessity of more equitable treatment of native peoples.
Using Christianity as the central reason for stopping the mistreatment
of the Indians, las Casas expresses the malicious actions towards
the Indians as an abomination against fundamental Christian understandings.
He specifically examines the harsh treatment of Indians with examples
of Indians in Cuba and mainland Mexico. As a result, his work provides
one of the first major glimpses into the social structures of the
Indians and the possibilities for a more harmonious life in the New
World. Overall, this source provides a much-needed insight into the
negative impacts of Spanish domination in America. |
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Casas, Bartolomé de las. History
of the Indies. Translated and Edited by Andree
Collard. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1971. |
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Original
publication: Historia de las Indias, 1875-1876.
Bartolomé de las Casas’s History of the Indies,
published forty years after his death, is still considered to be one
of the most important works demonstrating Spanish mistreatments of
the Indians. In his text, las Casas meticulously describes customs
of indigenous groups in the Caribbean and mainland Central America,
which he encountered. Attempting to invoke sympathy for these Indian
groups, las Casas pleaded with the royal family in Spain to stop the
injustices faced on a daily basis by these peoples. Using Christianity
to condemn the mistreatment of these groups, las Casas’s text
demonstrates the empathy many Europeans’ felt for the Indians
in America. Overall, this source is most valuable for its descriptions
of various Indian groups at the time of contact and the negative impacts
Spanish colonization had on the cultures of the New World. |
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Casas, Bartolomé de las. The
Tears of the Indians being an historical and true account of the cruel
massacres and slaughters of above twenty millions of innocent people,
committed by the Spaniards in the islands of Hispaniola, Cuba, Jamaica,
& c.: as also in the continent of Mexico, Peru, & other places
of the West Indies, to the total destruction of those countries.
Translated by Nathan Brook. London: Printed by J.C. for Nath. Brook,
1656. |
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Original
publication: Brevíssima relación de la
destruyción de las Indias, 1552.
First published in 1552, Bartolomé de las Casas’s detailed
account of various altercations between the Spanish and Indian groups
in America sheds light on the dominating and exploitive nature of
sixteenth century Spanish ruling tactics. Written with the intent
to expose Europeans to the injustices faced by native American cultures,
las Casas describes gruesomely-detailed events of unprovoked Spanish
killings of Indian peoples in the New World. Primarily focusing of
the treatment of Indians in the Caribbean, Las Casas describes the
inhumane treatment of various chiefdoms of the island of Hispaniola,
Cuba, and Jamaica. Overall, this source is crucial in understanding
the specific monstrosities committed on various Indian groups in America
by the Spanish ruling classes as well as the growing anti-ethnocentric
mentality of the Spanish intellectual elites. |
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Casas,
Bartolomé de las. The
Devastation of the Indies: A Brief Account. Translated
by Herma Briffault. New York: The Seabury Press, 1974. |
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Original
publication: Brevíssima relación de la
destruyción de las Indias, 1552.
Published originally in 1552 as a result of intense Indian debates
at Valladolid in 1550-1551, las Casas’s Devastation of the
Indies provides a concise synopsis of various mistreatments endured
by Indians of the New World. Initially written as a plea to the Holy
Roman emperor Charles V, this brief account details the various inhumane
activities exhibited on the indigenous peoples of the Americas. In
hopes of creating royal sympathy for the injustices faced by Indians
of the New World, las Casas’s text combines emotionally charged
rhetoric with highly persuasive commentary in order to ensure royal
interaction and the prevention of Indian mistreatments. Although not
as detailed as his other works, las Casas’s text provides readers
with a general understanding of Indian-Spanish relations and the various
repercussions of European contact. |
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Columbus,
Christopher. Four
Voyages to the New World: Letters and Selected Documents.
Bilingual ed. Translated and edited by R.H. Major. New York: Corinth
Books, 1961. |
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Original
publication: Select Letters of Christopher Columbus,
1847.
Christopher Columbus’s 1493 letters regarding his voyages to
the Bahamas, Cuba, and Hispaniola offers a brief summary about the
people, environments, and customs the explorer encountered on his
travels. Columbus’s descriptions of the New World, recorded
over a six-month period, primarily focuses on Christian based concepts
of geography, nautical surveys, and native customs. His work provides
insights into the fifteenth century mentalities regarding the evangelization
and colonization of the New World, which helps the reader understand
the negative Spanish ideologies surrounding indigenous peoples’
social customs. Columbus’s role as the first “discoverer
of the New World” makes his text invaluable in understanding
the first impressions of Europeans regarding the native inhabitants
of America. |
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Columbus,
Christopher. The
Diario of Christopher Columbus’s First Voyage to America 1492-1493.
Abstracted by Bartolome de las Casas. Translated by Oliver Dunn and
James E. Kelley, Jr. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989. |
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Original
publication: Diario, 1825.
The diary of Christopher Columbus’s first voyage to the New
World remains as the principal source document for understanding the
initial contact between Spanish and Indian people. This text illustrates
the difficulties the Spanish had in understanding the different cultures
of the New World. Incorporating las Casas’s editorial notes
regarding Spanish ideologies, this translation is the most complete
English version of its kind. Columbus’s diary provides his private
thoughts regarding native peoples, his search for prestige and money,
his various interactions with the American environment, as well as
addresses his contacts with Cuban and other inhabitants of the Antilles.
This source is crucial for understanding the mentality behind the
conquest of the New World and the initial reactions of the Spanish
to foreign lands and peoples. |
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Fernández
de Oviedo y Valdés, Gonzalo. Natural
History of the West Indies. Chapel Hill: The University
of North Carolina Press, 1959. |
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Original
publication: La Natural hystoria de las Indias,
1825.
Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo’s work, Natural History
of the Indies, describes the environment, culture, and various
encounters of the Spanish with the New World. It explains specific
details about native tribes in the Caribbean and American mainland.
Written from a religious, semi-ethnocentric standpoint, Oviedo’s
work expresses common European ideas of domination and control over
Indian populations. Justifying Spanish actions as a project ordained
by God, Oviedo’s work perpetuated the marginalization of native
people in the colonization of the New World. In spite of these flaws,
his work is crucial to the understanding of the Spanish perspectives
regarding the treatment of indigenous cultures in America. |
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Lockhart,
James, and Enrique Otte, eds. Letters
and Peoples of the Spanish Indies: Sixteenth Century.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. |
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A compilation of various letters written in the sixteenth century,
Letters and Peoples of the Spanish Indies attempts to bring
clarity to the multitude of perspectives felt by inhabitants of the
New World. Focusing on letters written by Spanish and Indian groups
of America to Spanish Crown, this text demonstrates the difficulties
of ruling an ethnically diverse society and how Spanish mentalities
dominated the government of the New World. The text contains personal
as well as public letters written to officials in hopes of receiving
better treatment and leniency in their personal matters. Overall,
this source is vital to understanding the perspective of various societal
groups and their hopes of achieving more equitable lives. |
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Münster,
Sebastian. A
Treatyse of the Newe India: with other new founde landes and islandes,
aswell eastwarde as westwarde, as they are knowen and found in these
oure dayes, after the description of Sebastian Munster in his boke
of universall cosmographie: wherin the diligent reader may see the
good successe and rewarde of noble and honeste enterpryses, by the
which not only worldly ryches are obtayned, but also God is glorified,
[and] the Christian faythe enlarged. Translated out of Latin into
Englishe. Translated by Rycharde Eden. London:
In Lombard strete, by [S. Mierdman for] Edward Sutton, 1553. |
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Original
publication: Cosmographia, 1544.
A Treatyse of Newe India, Richard Eden's translation
from the Latin of Sebastian Münster's Cosmographia,
describes the events surrounding Spanish contact with the New World
through the eyes of a German geographer. This interesting account
describes the events of Columbus’s contact and his encounters
with Caribbean cultures and the necessity for Christianizing the native
peoples. Also, it promotes the exploitation of American goods and
peoples, justifying them as essential for the betterment of Europe.
This source is valuable because it provides insight into the common
European mentalities of subordination and exploitation. |
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Pané,
Fray Ramón. An
Account of the Antiquities of the Indians: Chronicles of the New World
Encounter. Edited by José Juan Arrom. Translated
by Susan C. Griswold. Durham: Duke University Press, 1999. |
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Original
publication: Relación acerca de las antigüedades
de los indios, 1498
Originally completed in 1498 and translated to various languages,
Ramón Pané’s An Account of Antiquities of
the Indians is considered, by far, the most complete source in
understanding the customs and practices of the Taino culture at the
time of European contact. Sent by the Spanish crown to live among
the indigenous people of Hispaniola in order to document their religious
and cultural practices, Pané’s text provides detailed
accounts of Taíno language and daily customs as well as the
European mentalities condemning their practices. Shedding light on
the evangelization process of the New World and the natives’
deliberate resistance of European customs and religion, Pané’s
text uncovers the cultural complexities surrounding Spanish-Indian
relations. Overall, this text is crucial in bringing together the
various linguistic, religious, and cultural characteristics of the
Taínos and the Europeans factors influencing them. |
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Secondary
Sources |
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Bercht,
Fatima, Estrellita Brodsky, John Alan Farmer, and Dicey Taylor, ed.
Taíno:
Pre- Columbian Art and Culture from the Caribbean.
New York: El Museo Del Barrio, The Monacelli Press, 1997. |
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A
compilation of essays dealing with the native influences on Caribbean
cultures, Taíno: Pre-Columbian Art and Culture examines
the lives of indigenous cultures prior to, and during Spanish contact.
Using archaeological remains and historic chroniclers, the text provides
intricate details regarding Taíno life, religion, and culture.
Describing the migration practices of Caribbean natives and the culturally
syncretic system of exchange between Indian cultures, this book sheds
light on the complexities existing within social structures of the
pre-Columbian Antilles. In hopes of providing a general understanding
of Spanish mentalities towards the Indians of Hispaniola, the text
provides invaluable citations of various historical chroniclers of
pre-Columbian life (i.e. Columbus, las Casas, Pietro Martire d’Anghiera),
and demonstrates the negative impact on the native peoples as a result
these mentalities. In spite of the disappearance of most of the Taínos
from the island of Cuba, the text explains the biological, cultural,
and linguistic impacts made by the tribe on society even after its
destruction. Overall, the book’s intricate details of Spanish
and Indian acculturation tactics and invaluable primary source materials
makes this text crucial in understanding Spanish-Indian relations
regarding life and society. |
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Crosby
Jr., Alfred W. The
Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492.
Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Company, 1972. |
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Alfred
Crosby’s influential book, The Columbian Exchange,
provides insight into the effects of social and biological factors
causing the demise of the indigenous groups of early America. Using
social histories as a tool for examining interactions between European
and Native American cultures, Crosby’s text explains the social
constructs that eventually led to the acculturation of Spanish-Indian
customs. Looking at the economic, social, and political changes brought
about by European contacts with natives, Crosby’s book sets
a foundation for understanding biological and cultural exchanges between
groups in the New World. Addressing the movements of diseases to the
New World as well as the transfer of goods and populations, Crosby’s
book illustrates the positive and negative factors resulting from
the colonization of the Americas. Overall, Crosby’s ability
to illustrate the effects of cultural and biological exchanges as
a result of Spanish-Indian contact makes this book crucial in understanding
the repercussions involved with the Spanish process of expansionism
and the mentalities of colonization. |
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Dacal
Mouré, Ramón and Manuel Rivero de la Calle. Art
and Archaeology of Pre- Columbian Cuba. Translated
by Daniel H. Sandweiss. Edited by Daniel H. Sandweiss and David R.
Watters. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996. |
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Thought
of as one of the most complete texts for studies in Pre-Columbian
Cuban history, Art and Archaeology provides readers with
an in-depth understanding of indigenous life in the Caribbean. Establishing
numerous cultural connections between the islands of the Antilles,
the text explains the syncretic relations exhibited by inhabitants
of the region as well as the innate process of acculturation present
in native life and culture. The text focuses on three key factors
influential in creating pre-Columbian native life: the migration process
of Amazonian Indians to Cuba and the acculturation of mainland social
structures, the creation and migration of various aboriginal cultures,
and the development of the Ciboney and Taíno tribes. The text
also demonstrates the impact of Spanish contacts on Caribbean life
and culture and the reverse acculturation of Indian customs by the
Spanish colonizers of Cuba. This text provides the reader with intricate
details of native life and validates these influences on Cuban social
systems. In spite of being a subject of recent controversy because
the author lacked historical academic training, this source provides
invaluable insights into the lives of Cuban Indians and illustrates
the impacts of Spanish colonization on the eventual demise of the
indigenous cultures of the region. |
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Guitar,
Lynne. “Documenting
the Myth of Taíno Extinction”. Journal
of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology [On-line Journal]
Special Edition, Edited by Lynne Guitar 2002. http://www.kacike.org/GuitarEnglish.pdf
(10 October 2003). |
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Lynne
Guitar’s article, “Documenting the Myth of Taíno
Extinction,” questions the validity of the historical myth of
Taíno extinction and attempts to dismantle the Spanish claims
as conquerors of those regions. Utilizing newly-discovered archival
documents, Guitar argues that the Spanish did not control the Antilles,
specifically the islands of Hispaniola and Cuba, until long after
the establishments of their colonies. Indian groups and various aborigines
in the Antilles prevented the Spanish from obtaining a firm grasp
on their society by plotting rebellions and killing Spanish militia.
In hopes of breaking down Eurocentric mentalities surrounding the
collapse of Taíno society, Guitar provides intricate archival
details illustrating the independency of Taíno people. Explaining
that social control of the Antilles was less dependent on Spanish
authority and more heavily related to the indigenous peoples’
willingness to prevent cultural domination, Guitar describes the Taíno
as a group resistant of change and willing to fight for their ability
to retain their own culture. The Taíno’s rebellious mentality,
as Guitar describes, is what ultimately led to their society’s
destruction. Overall, this source provides an ulterior perspective
into the history of Spanish domination. It illustrates the indigenous
group’s desire to maintain an independent culture as well as
the militaristic skills that supported their endeavors. As a result,
this text provides a much needed insight into the mentality of the
Indians of Cuba and Caribbean society as a whole. |
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Hanke,
Lewis. All
Mankind Is One: A Study of the Disputation Between Bartolome de Las
Casas and Juan Gines de Sepulveda in 1550 on the Intellectual and
Religious Capacity of the American Indians. DeKalb:
Northern Illinois University Press,1974. |
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Created
as an introduction and explanation for las Casas’s treatise,
Defense Against the Persecutors and Slanderers of the Peoples
of the New World Discovered across the Seas, delivered in 1550
at Valladolid, Hanke’s All Mankind as One provides
insight into the various mentalities surrounding the mistreatment
of Indians in the New World. By looking specifically at the Sepulvéda-las
Casas debate regarding the treatment and negative stigmatization of
New World indigenous peoples, Hanke analyzes the reason for the prolonged
acceptance of Indian inferiority and its various repercussions. Drawing
from various historical accounts (i.e. Oviedo, Zorita, and Vitoria)
and dealing with the interactions and mentalities exhibited by both
Sepulveda and las Casas, Hanke’s text provides detailed insight
regarding the social and political influences shaping the harsh treatment
policies towards Indian groups in the New World. Overall, the text’s
ability to thoroughly detail specific events, mentalities, and policies
related to the treatment of Indians around the 1500s, and provide
insight into the Sepulvéda-las Casas debate makes it crucial
for understanding the changing European mentalities of the time and
the factors shaping them. |
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Hoffman,
Paul E. The
Spanish Crown and the Defense of the Caribbean, 1535-1585: Precedent,
Patrimonialism, and Royal Parsimony. Baton Rouge:
Louisiana State University Press, 1980. |
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Paul
Hoffman's text, The Spanish Crown and the Defense of the Caribbean,
attempts to clarify the impact of the Spanish crown on the inhabitants
of the Caribbean. Isolating his study to the examination of various
archival treasury records and their relations to the militaristic
endeavors of the crown between 1535 and 1585, Hoffman provides readers
with economic reasons for the conquest of the area. Explaining the
depth of the Crown’s willingness to achieve monetary gains,
Hoffman’s book describes Spain’s indifference with the
treatment and welfare of the native populations in the Americas. Based
on Spanish individuals’ desires to achieve social status in
their homeland, Hoffman describes the ongoing necessity for expansion
and conquest in the New World. To achieve monetary gains, the Spanish
were willing to mistreat and exploit the native inhabitants of the
Americas. Overall, this text is vital for understanding the Spanish
mentality of economical wealth and its impact of the colonization
and exploitation of the New World. |
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Pagden,
Anthony. The
Fall of Natural Man: The American Indian and the Origins of Comparative
Ethnology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1982. |
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Anthony
Pagden’s exceptional work, The Fall of Natural Man,
describes the European perceptions of the barbaric nature of Indians
and their justifications for the mistreatment of these native inhabitants.
Basing the abuse of the native inhabitants as an outcome of the Enlightenment
movement, Pagden’s work brings clarity to the complex ideological
issues surrounding the pursuit of the Spanish conquest and exploitation.
Discussing the various impacts of Aristotle’s theory of natural
slavery, the ideologies behind the corruption and misuse of Christianity,
and the European imperialistic mentality, Pagden describes the conquerors’
justifications in achieving the goals of land and wealth. Overall,
this source provides the reader with an in depth understanding of
the European and Spanish mentalities, which few books can accomplish.
With detailed explanations of complex ideologies, this source brings
clarity to the underlining factors influencing the conquest of the
Americas. |
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Rouse,
Irving. Introduction to Prehistory:
A Systematic Approach. New York: McGraw- Hill Book
Company, 1972. |
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Irving
Rouse’s Introduction to Prehistory systematically approaches
the scientific and anthropological theories shaping the migration
and evolution of prehistoric peoples. Attempting to reconstruct the
various factors influencing prehistoric life and times, the text illustrates
the multitude of inconsistencies in scientific understanding while
dealing with various theoretical elements shaping the creation of
the ancient world. Laying out the various cultural and social characteristics
indicative of migratory peoples, Rouse’s text helps illustrate
the evolutionary processes involved with environmental changes and
the cultural adaptations, resulting from the ancient peoples’
new surroundings. Although this text is not limited to the New World
per se, it illustrates how individuals moved and established independent
societal characteristics. |
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Traboulay,
David M. Columbus
and Las Casas: The Conquest and Christianization of America, 1492-1566.
New York: University Press of America, 1994. |
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Dealing
with European mentalities regarding the treatment of New World indigenous
groups, Conquest and Christianization of America deals with
the various societal ramifications of Spanish contact and the overall
European dominance of the New World’s economic and social endeavors.
Analyzing both Columbus and las Casas, the text details the opposing
ideologies encompassing New World peoples and customs. Expressing
the European need for evangelization of the natives and their goals
in obtaining wealth, goods, and social status, the text explains the
various factors causing the domination and destruction of New World
cultures and religious practices. Addressing Columbus and las Casas’
interactions with the Caribbean inhabitants, the text illustrates
the initial reactions of contact and the Europeans’ struggle
to develop a socially acceptable construct for New World natives.
Overall, the text is crucial in providing a detailed account of Spanish-Indian
interactions and explaining the various mentalities involved with
those contacts. |
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Ulloa,
Jorge. “Archaeology
and Rescue of the Aboriginal Presence in Cuba and the Caribbean.”
Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology.
[On- line Journal] Special Edition, Edited by Lynne Guitar, 2002.
http://www.kacike.org/UlloaEnglish.pdf
(10 October 2003). |
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Jorge
Ulloa’s article, “Archaeology and Rescue of Aboriginal
Presence in Cuba”, addresses the influences that the natives
of the island of Cuba had on the creation of modern societies. The
reemergence of traditional cultural characteristics among the island’s
black inhabitants has made modern Cuba a combination of Spanish and
Indian cultural characteristics. A culmination of various cultural
traits developed over hundreds of years, Cuba has become a societal
melting pot of diverse ethnic groups. Stemming from recent discoveries
in the field of archaeology and the increased popular interest in
understanding Cuban past, traditional native characteristics have
emerged as dominant traits in many social groups on the island. Overall,
this source provides a modern understanding about the importance of
native Cuban cultures and their ability to persist as significant
contributors to modern Cuban society, in spite of their depletion
in population. |
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Wilson,
Samuel M. Hispaniola:
Caribbean Chiefdoms in the Age of Columbus. Tuscaloosa:
University of Alabama Press, 1990. |
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Samuel
Wilson’s book, Hispaniola, describes the various chiefdoms
existing in the Caribbean at the time of Spanish contact. Explaining
the migrations of native peoples throughout the islands and mainland,
Wilson provides intricate details about the acculturation of various
traits between Caribbean indigenous groups and inhabitants of the
American continent. Describing the socially and politically complex
systems existing in the Caribbean, Wilson illustrates the degree to
which many Indians of the area lost their social complexities and
their autonomous structures as a result of the Spanish conquest. This
source is crucial in providing background on the political and social
systems of the indigenous people and how the Spanish negatively affected
them. |
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Wilson,
Samuel M., ed. The
Indigenous People of the Caribbean. Gainesville:
University Press of Florida, 1997. |
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This
compilation of various scholarly works addresses the archaeological,
social, biological impacts that migrations of indigenous Caribbean
cultures had on the development of similar societal structures and
the repercussions of Spanish contact. Expressing natives in terms
of social organizations and well as their impact on social and political
endeavors, this source helps to substantiate native role in Caribbean
pre-history. Discussing the loss of social autonomy due to the implementation
of Spanish political and social structures, Wilson describes the inevitable
collapse of traditional native social system. Overall, Wilson’s
book provides important insights into the lives of indigenous groups
prior to Spanish contact and the negative effects after Spanish contacts,
which are key to understanding the Indians’ roles in Caribbean
society. |
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Tertiary
Sources |
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Angulo,
María-Elena. Magic
Realism: Social Context and Discourse. New York:
Garland Publishing, Inc., 1995. |
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María-Elena
Angulo’s book, Magic Realism, attempts to explain the
social factors influencing the creation of mythological constructs,
resulting in the formation of the Latin American concept of magic
realism. Mixing centuries of acculturated mythological indigenous
customs, Angulo explains magic realism as a result of the ethnically
diverse and highly complex Latin American reality. Specifically looking
at various authors using magic realism or realismo maravilloso, Angulo
attempts to pinpoint its meaning through various Latin American authors’
works. This source is beneficial for establishing a modern connection
between traditional native customs of mythology and modern Latin American
rationales of religion. Although Cuban Indians played a minor role
in Angulo’s text, their inclusion illustrates the syncretism
representative of Latin American nations. Overall, Angulo’s
text is essential for illustrating a specific example of Spanish acculturation
of Indian mythological ideologies. |
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Bernal,
Ignacio. A History of Mexican Archaeology:
The Vanished Civilizations of Middle America. London:
Thames & Hudson, 1980. |
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Ignacio
Bernal’s A History of Mexican Archaeology provides
a thorough account of significant contributors to the study of Amerindian
history. Concerned not only with the historical theories and methodologies
created to interpret native cultures and their environments, Bernal’s
text attempts to examine the sequential changes in knowledge resulting
from the expansion of historical understandings about the New World.
Dealing with theories created between the 1500s-1900s, the information
presented in this source provides details necessary in understanding
the various mentalities of the evangelizers, chroniclers, and historians
who wrote about the New World. Overall, the effectiveness of Bernal’s
text helps substantiate the changes in historical perspectives over
the course of history, an idea crucial to understanding the mentalities
influencing the treatment of indigenous groups. |
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Camayd-Freixas,
Erik, and José Eduardo González, ed. Primitivism
and Identity in Latin America: Essays on Art, Literature, and Culture.
Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 2000. |
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Primitivism
and Identity is a compilation of essays addressing the involvement
of primitivism in various aspects of Latin American life and culture.
This text attempts to clarify the constructs making up identities
and counter-identities based on mentalities of a primitive nature.
Explaining the fundamental ideology of primitivism a direct result
of Spanish mentalities of domination, the text sheds light on the
ethnocentric ideologies resulting from Spanish contact with the New
World. It also attempts to address the rudimentary problems in understanding
concepts of self and culture, and their relation to the various perspectives
of Latin American thought. Addressing culture, environment, social,
and gender issues, the text’s ability to analyze various aspects
of Latin American society as direct correlations to primitive thoughts
aptly expresses the negative results of Spanish domination. This source
is important for understanding the legacy of Spanish ethnocentrism
created by the original colonizers and the destructive impact this
legacy has had on Latin American social relations. |
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Charlevoix,
Pierre Francois Xavier de. Journal
of a Voyage to North-America. Vol. 1. Edited by
Louise Phelps Kellogg. Chicago: The Caxton Club, 1923. |
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Original
publication: Histoire et description generale de la Nouvelle
France, avec le Journal historique d'un voyage fait par ordre du roi
dans l'Amérique Septentrionnale, 1744
Father Pierre de Charlevoix’s journal regarding his voyages
to North America between 1705 and 1709 illustrates the ever-present
European mentality regarding the mandatory Christianization of native
peoples. Volume I of this extensive text examines various notes Father
Charlevoix compiled regarding contact with Indians in the eighteenth
century and the negotiations between the French crown and the Indians
of Canada. A compilation of notes written in letter format from June
1720 to May 1721, Father Charlevoix explains the various confrontations,
negotiations, and rebellions of the indigenous people regarding their
treatment and domination. Although published nearly three hundred
years after first contact, the text describes the continual importance
of Christianity and the necessity for evangelizing the natives. Overall,
this source provides valuable information about the continual process
of Christianization of indigenous peoples and the ongoing mentality
of civilizing the New World, two ideas central in European mentalities
regarding American native cultures. |
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Charlevoix,
Pierre Francois Xavier de. Journal
of a Voyage to North-America. Vol. 2. Edited by
Louise Phelps Kellogg. Chicago: The Caxton Club, 1923. |
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Original
publication: Histoire et description generale de la Nouvelle
France, avec le Journal historique d'un voyage fait par ordre du roi
dans l'Amérique Septentrionnale, 1744
The second volume of Father Charlevoix’s work describes the
events occuring between June 1721 and January 1723 regarding Indian-French
relations in Canada. His text explains the numerous agreements made
with the natives of Canada and the resentment of the French ruling
classes resulting the better treatments mandated by the compromises
with the Indian groups. The text effectively illustrates the continual
ethnocentric mentality permeating many European governments’
leaders regarding the equitable treatment of Indian groups. Overall,
this source is important for demonstrating how in spite of the changes
made regarding better treatments for Indian groups, underlining racist
ideologies within European governing tactics were central to relations
with Indian groups. |
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Chomsky,
Aviva, and Aldo Lauria-Santiago, ed. Identity
and Struggle at the Margins of the Nation-State: The Laboring Peoples
of Central America and the Hispanic Caribbean.
Durham: Duke University Press, 1998. |
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Focusing
on the societal implications of various laboring peoples of Central
America and the Caribbean, Identity and Struggle examines
the social complexities resulting from the marginalization of various
ethnically based groups. Although the text primarily focuses on societal
changes occurring in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,
it provides a thorough foundation for understanding the historical
reasons for, and the factors causing, the mistreatment of ethnic peoples
in the New World. Dedicating numerous sections to the specific analysis
of Caribbean indigenous groups, the text illustrates that in spite
of the Indians marginalization in mainstream society, they were able
to effectively maintain a sense of community and native heritage.
Overall, this text provides insight into the complexities of ethnic
relations in the New World and sheds light on the continuous struggle
for equity among marginalized peoples. |
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Humboldt, Alexander von. The
Island of Cuba. Translated by J.S. Thrasher. Princeton
& Kingston: Markus Weiner Publishers & Ian Randle Publishers,
2001. |
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Original
publication: Essai politique sur l'île de Cuba, 1826.
Alexander von Humboldt’s groundbreaking book, The Island
of Cuba, has been the single-most influential texts regarding
nineteenth century Cuban life. Published in 1826, twenty-two years
after his initial visit to the island, Humboldt’s text discussed
the various impacts of sugar, tobacco, slavery, and colonial rule
on the inhabitants of Cuba. In doing so, Humboldt addressed the mistreatments
faced by the slaves and other minority groups living on the island.
Based on his dislike for slavery and the mistreatment of marginalized
peoples, Humboldt’s work exhibits emotionally charged anti-ethnocentric
commentary addressing the injustices faced by the lower classes. This
source is addresses the institutionalized mentality of ethnocentrism
existing in Cuban society, and the ongoing struggle to breakdown these
negative constructs. |
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Hylton,
Patrick C. The Struggles of the Caribbean People, 1492-1984.
Washington D.C.: Billpop Publications, Inc., 1984. |
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Providing
a general history of the Caribbean, Patrick Hylton’s The
Struggles of the Caribbean People gives a brief historical account
of significant activities taking place in the Caribbean between 1492
and 1984. Attempting to reconstruct a historical past of marginalized
groups (Indians, blacks, mulattoes, various immigrants), Hylton looks
at various struggles between the Spanish majority and Caribbean minorities.
Exposing the exploitive and oppressive nature of the ruling classes
and establishing a context for Caribbean minority history, Hylton
addresses the ways in which marginalized groups were able to effectively
resist and in some cases expel certain repressive social systems.
Believing that Western accounts of history tended to present distorted
views of the struggles between various classes, Hylton’s text
attempts to redefine the social struggles of the past and put them
into context as significant occurrences in history. This source is
important because it provides the reader with an alternate approach
to historical research in the Caribbean, therefore making in essential
to the understanding of the plight of the underprivileged groups in
the region. |
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Keegan,
William F. Artifacts in Archaeology: A Caribbean Case Study.
Master’s Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 1981. |
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William
Keegan’s masters’ thesis, Artifacts in Archaeology,
describes the development of various cultures in the Caribbean based
on material remains and archaeological records. It provides a detailed
understanding of the complexities within Caribbean cultures prior
to Spanish contact and the culturally syncretic characteristics central
to Caribbean life and culture. This text gives prime examples of the
highly developed cultures already present in the Caribbean, an idea
contrary to many early historians of the region. Overall, Keegan’s
ability to provide a theoretical framework for understanding the transmission
of culture between various Caribbean groups makes his thesis crucial
in understanding the connection between indigenous cultures’
willingness to resist changes in their societies. |
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Slater,
Mary. The
Caribbean Islands. New York: Viking Press, 1968. |
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Mary
Slater’s book, The Caribbean Islands, gives a detailed
account of life and culture in the Caribbean. Providing chapters describing
the cultural, economic, and social make up of Cuba, Hispaniola, and
the Greater Antilles, Slater’s book explores the historical
importance of the Caribbean Indians’ background and its relation
to the culture heritage of the islands. The text provides a chronological
layout of significant events (i.e. rebellions, revolts, and political
and religious movements) shaping the political and social atmosphere
of the region. Overall, this source provides an essential background
of general Caribbean history, and helps establish a coherent connection
between the various cultures of the West Indies. |
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Smith,
Barbara Fletchman. Mental
Slavery: Psychoanalytic Studies of Caribbean People.
London: Rebus Press, 2000. |
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Barbara
Fletchman Smith’s book, Mental Slavery, addresses the
adverse affects of slavery on the psychological nature of Caribbean
peoples. Addressing the slave issue from a modern perspective, Fletchman
examines the historical ideologies shaping the negative, racist attitudes
surrounding the minority groups of the Caribbean. Useful in understanding
the mentality behind the subjugation and mental domination of marginalized
groups, Fletchman’s text sheds light on the historical factors
which shaped the negative perception of various ethnic peoples. This
source is crucial in establishing a connection between historical
justifications of exploitation and modern acceptability of racist
ideologies. |
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